THEORIES OF LEARNING: Page 53

which are consistent become part of habit responses. The major concern is with personality and integration. One of the versions of the Gestalt school is Raymond H. Wheeler's "organismic" learning, which combines energy and subjective designations. Learning is measured in terms of reduction of tension and personality development, and improvement is "at the level at conscious behavior"; it is not merely a result of conditioning, but a result of the relationship between the stimulus pattern and the learner's level of insight. A theory of purposive learning is presented by Edward C. Tolman (1932). He too is preoccupied with behavior and the need for adaptation. His theory is based on association of stimulus situations with concepts, perceptions and expectancies. He is more concerned with achievement than with the means of achievement. He accepts the ideas that associations occur as a result of contiguity of stimulus pattern and perception or cognition, but he is most interested in the nature and complexity of the response. He describes six kinds of learning: cathexes, "the acquisition of a connection between a basic drive like hunger and a specific type of goal object" like a particular food, or a negative drive like fright along with a specific object of fear, equivalence beliefs, "a connection between a positively cathected type of goal—and a sub-goal," or the equivalent negative, field expectancies, once called "sign-Gestalt