THEORIES OF LEARNING: Page 54

expectation," the acquisition by the organism of "sets" or "field expectancies" on successive experiences in a particular environment which makes possible short cuts or roundabout routes, field cognition modes, meaning that field expectant is dependent not only upon memory but on perception and inference as well, drive discriminations, the ability to distinguish between different drives, motor patterns if learned (conditioned) when the patterns lead to the desired goals. Tolman sees goals and configurations in a cause-and-effect sequence. The social environment is the stimulus, and rewards are of great importance. Practice leads to acquiring the "feel" of the situation. Norman Maier (1931) offers a theory of frustration along with an explanation of learning. He found that frustration tended to freeze or fixate a response, even if punishment was the ultimate result of the response. He concluded that frustration is an aspect of behavior completely separate from learning. He divides learning into two categories, associative and selective, the first in terms of conditioning, the second in terms of the learning what happens in the course of solving a puzzle, where the outcome provides the direction of the learning. Behavior can be altered in four ways, he says: in the "extension of a response (conditioning) so that it will be expressed in a variety of situations," in changing the consequences of an action; in "a change of perception or stimulus interpretation"; and in "insightful problem solving" in